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           speaking; in the source code category; each thought corresponds to a feature to implement。  


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Figure 2…1。 Brainstorming what the calculator application represents 



Figure 2…2。 Focused and organized brainstorming 



Focusing the Calculator 



To implement a feature; you need source code; which means a file; project; and other program

ming techniques。 The following two levels of organization are defined in Visual Basic: 



     o  File level: At the file level; you are organizing what kinds of projects and solutions you  

        will be creating。 



     o  Source code level: At the source code level; you are organizing the namespaces; modules;  

        class names; and other identifiers that are referenced throughout the source code。 


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                 For the most part; Visual Basic developers do not concern themselves too much with the  

           file organization。 A mon practice is to consider a class or module as a single file。  

                 When implementing an application; you will begin by deciding whether you will use a  

           console application; a Windows application; or a class library。  

                 If the calculator were a Windows application; it could look like Figure 2…3。 A calculator  

           implemented as a Windows application allows users to perform calculations by clicking the  

           appropriate buttons。 For example; to add two numbers; the user clicks the appropriate buttons  

           to key in the first number; then an operation; then the second number; and finally; the equal  

           sign to perform the calculation。 The equal sign is a signal to the calculator application to process  

           the data that has been entered and generate a result。 The text box would display the results。 



           Figure 2…3。 A calculator implemented as a Windows application 



                 The second choice is to implement a calculator using a console application; where the  

           numbers are entered as text; as illustrated in Figure 2…4。 The calculator does not expect users to  

           click buttons; rather; they press the appropriate keyboard keys to enter the appropriate number at  

           the appropriate time with the appropriate operation。 Typically; an Enter key will serve as an  

           equal sign button and perform a calculation; which is output to the console。 Once one calcula

           tion has pleted; the cycle starts again。 

                 If you had to choose between a Windows or console application for the calculator; you would  

           choose the Windows application because it looks better and is easier to use。 In the focused  

           thoughts of Figure 2…2; ease of use was not defined as a feature。 Should the user interface type have  

           been a feature? Normally; yes it should be a feature; but for the scope of this chapter; it is not。 

                 The user interaction between the two types of applications is dramatically different; and  

           implies two different programs; even though they implement the same features。 The focus is  

           not on creating a particular program type; but on the overall programming structure。 


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Figure 2…4。 A calculator implemented as a console application 



      Let’s step back and think about this abstractly。 You are a programmer and have been  

charged with the task of implementing the calculator for both user interfaces。 Again; thinking  

abstractly; would you implement all the functionality twice; or would you try to think about  

which parts of the calculator could be reused for both user interfaces? Most likely; your answer  

will be that you want to reuse parts of the calculator so that you have less work。 But you also want  

to reuse parts so that you can avoid additional maintenance and program extension problems。 

      So; for software development; you need to think of the software as pieces that are assem

bled into a program。 Some pieces can be reused; and other pieces cannot be reused。 Therefore;  

think of the calculator application as two pieces: the user interface and the piece that performs  

calculations based on data delivered by the user interface。 From an organizational perspective;  

or in developer lingo; from an architectural perspective; the calculator pieces would be arranged as  

shown in Figure 2…5。 

      The individual pieces in Figure 2…5 are called  ponents。 (Some individuals might even  

call the pieces modules; but I personally prefer the term ponents; and in a Visual Basic  

book; calling them modules could lead to confusion)。 The ponents are arranged from the  

lower…level functionality at the bottom of the picture to the higher…level functionality near the  

top of the picture。  

      Each ponent fulfills a particular task; and the higher…level ponents use those tasks  

implemented at a lower level。 The idea is that each level is responsible for certain functionality;  

and other levels do not duplicate efforts by reimplementing certain functionality。 The higher

level functionality does have a lower…level dependency; but the lower level does not have a  

higher…level dependency。 


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           Figure 2…5。 Arrangement of calculator pieces 



                Applications are realized using either top…down or bottom…up architecture。 A top…down  

           methodology means creating the higher…level ponents and then implementing the lower

          level ponents when needed。 In contrast; a bottom…up methodology means creating the  

          bottom ponents first。  

                A bottom…up approach is useful when you know clearly which features need to be imple

           mented。 A top…down approach is better when you have a rough idea of what features need to  

          be implemented; but don’t want to stray too far from the goal of the application。 The focus of  

           this chapter is to develop the Calculator class library; shown at the bottom of Figure 2…5; so we  

          will take the bottom…up approach in this chapter。 



           Implementing the Class Library 



          The creation of a class library is a form of file organization。 The next step is to create some  

           source code for the class library。 The source code is implemented in two steps:  



               o  Define the class and methods。 



               o  Implement the methods。 



                One of the biggest problems when learning a new language is understanding what the  

          language can and cannot do。 You can’t write source code that the language does not under

           stand。 So it is extremely important to know the programming language; because it determines  

          how your thoughts will be structured。  


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     You will write two types of source code: source code that organizes and source code that  

does something。 Organizational source code is like a filing system with folders。 Source code  

that does something is like a folder with stuff in it。 When you are creating the filing sy

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